(In this Accounting Standard, the standard portions have been set in bold italic type. These should be read in the context of the background material which has been set in normal type, and in the context of the ‘Preface to the Statements of Accounting Standards1.)

Accounting Standard (AS) 26, ‘Intangible Assets’, issued by the Council of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, comes into effect in respect of expenditure incurred on intangible items during accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2003 and is mandatory in nature2 from that date for the following:

1. Enterprises whose equity or debt securities are listed on a recognised stock exchange in India, and enterprises that are in the process of issuing equity or debt securities that will be listed on a recognised stock exchange in India as evidenced by the board of directors’ resolution in this regard.
   
   

2. All other commercial, industrial and business reporting enterprises, whose turnover for the accounting period exceeds Rs. 50 crores.

In respect of all other enterprises, the Accounting Standard comes into effect in respect of expenditure incurred on intangible items during accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2004 and is mandatory in nature from that date.

Earlier application of the Accounting Standard is encouraged.

In respect of intangible items appearing in the balance sheet as on the aforesaid date, i.e., 1-4-2003 or 1-4-2004, as the case may be, the Standard has limited application as stated in paragraph 99. From the date of this Standard becoming mandatory for the concerned enterprises, the following stand withdrawn :

1. Accounting Standard (AS) 8, Accounting for Research and Development;
   
   

2. Accounting Standard (AS) 6, Depreciation Accounting, with respect to the amortisation (depreciation) of intangible assets; and
   
   

3. Accounting Standard (AS) 10, Accounting for Fixed Assets - paragraphs 16.3 to 16.7, 37 and 38.

The objective of this Statement is to prescribe the accounting treatment for intangible assets that are not dealt with specifically in another Accounting Standard. This Statement requires an enterprise to recognise an intangible asset if, and only if, certain criteria are met. The Statement also specifies how to measure the carrying amount of intangible assets and requires certain disclosures about intangible assets.

If another Accounting Standard deals with a specific type of intangible asset, an enterprise applies that Accounting Standard instead of this Statement. For example, this Statement does not apply to :

1. intangible assets held by an enterprise for sale in the ordinary course of business (see AS 2, Valuation of Inventories, and AS 7, Accounting for Construction Contracts);
   
   

2. deferred tax assets (see AS 22, Accounting for Taxes on Income);
   
   

3. leases that fall within the scope of AS 19, Leases; and
   
   

4. goodwill arising on an amalgamation (see AS 14, Accounting for Amalgamations) and goodwill arising on consolidation (see AS 21, Consolidated Financial Statements).

This Statement applies to, among other things, expenditure on advertising, training, start-up, research and development activities. Research and development activities are directed to the development of knowledge. Therefore, although these activities may result in an asset with physical substance (for example, a prototype), the physical element of the asset is secondary to its intangible component, that is the knowledge embodied in it. This Statement also applies to rights under licensing agreements for items such as motion picture films, video recordings, plays, manuscripts, patents and copyrights. These items are excluded from the scope of AS 19.

In the case of a finance lease, the underlying asset may be either tangible or intangible. After initial recognition, a lessee deals with an intangible asset held under a finance lease under this Statement.

Exclusions from the scope of an Accounting Standard may occur if certain activities or transactions are so specialised that they give rise to accounting issues that may need to be dealt with in a different way. Such issues arise in the expenditure on the exploration for, or development and extraction of, oil, gas and mineral deposits in extractive industries and in the case of contracts between insurance enterprises and their policyholders. Therefore, this Statement does not apply to expenditure on such activities. However, this Statement applies to other intangible assets used (such as computer software), and other expenditure (such as start-up costs), in extractive industries or by insurance enterprises. Accounting issues of specialised nature also arise in respect of accounting for discount or premium relating to borrowings and ancillary costs incurred in connection with the arrangement of borrowings, share issue expenses and discount allowed on the issue of shares. Accordingly, this Statement does not apply to such items also.

The following terms are used in this Statement with the meanings specified :

An intangible asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset, without physical substance, held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for administrative purposes.

An asset is a resource:

1. controlled by an enterprise as a result of past events; and
   
   
2. from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.

Monetary assets are money held and assets to be received in fixed or determinable amounts of money.

Non-monetary assets are assets other than monetary assets.

Research is original and planned investigation undertaken with the prospect of gaining new scientific or technical knowledge and understanding.

Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge to a plan or design for the production of new or substantially improved materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services prior to the commencement of commercial production or use.

Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an intangible asset over its useful life.

Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset less its residual value.

Useful life is either :

1. the period of time over which an asset is expected to be used by the enterprise; or
   
   

2. the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by the enterprise.

An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount.4

Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised in the balance sheet, net of any accumulated amortisation and accumulated impairment losses thereon.

Enterprises frequently expend resources, or incur liabilities, on the acquisition, development, maintenance or enhancement of intangible resources such as scientific or technical knowledge, design and implementation of new processes or systems, licences, intellectual property, market knowledge and trademarks (including brand names and publishing titles). Common examples of items encompassed by these broad headings are computer software, patents, copyrights, motion picture films, customer lists, mortgage servicing rights, fishing licences, import quotas, franchises, customer or supplier relationships, customer loyalty, market share and marketing rights. Goodwill is another example of an item of intangible nature which either arises on acquisition or is internally generated.

Not all the items described in paragraph 7 will meet the definition of an intangible asset, that is, identifiability, control over a resource and expectation of future economic benefits flowing to the enterprise. If an item covered by this Statement does not meet the definition of an intangible asset, expenditure to acquire it or generate it internally is recognised as an expense when it is incurred. However, if the item is acquired in an amalgamation in the nature of purchase, it forms part of the goodwill recognised at the date of the amalgamation (see paragraph 55).

Some intangible assets may be contained in or on a physical substance such as a compact disk (in the case of computer software), legal documentation (in the case of a licence or patent) or film (in the case of motion pictures). The cost of the physical substance containing the intangible assets is usually not significant. Accordingly, the physical substance containing an intangible asset, though tangible in nature, is commonly treated as a part of the intangible asset contained in or on it.

In some cases, an asset may incorporate both intangible and tangible elements that are, in practice, inseparable. In determining whether such an asset should be treated under AS 10, Accounting for Fixed Assets, or as an intangible asset under this Statement, judgement is required to assess as to which element is predominant. For example, computer software for a computer controlled machine tool that cannot operate without that specific software is an integral part of the related hardware and it is treated as a fixed asset. The same applies to the operating system of a computer. Where the software is not an integral part of the related hardware, computer software is treated as an intangible asset.

The definition of an intangible asset requires that an intangible asset be identifiable. To be identifiable, it is necessary that the intangible asset is clearly distinguished from goodwill. Goodwill arising on an amalgamation in the nature of purchase represents a payment made by the acquirer in anticipation of future economic benefits. The future economic benefits may result from synergy between the identifiable assets acquired or from assets which, individually, do not qualify for recognition in the financial statements but for which the acquirer is prepared to make a payment in the amalgamation.

An intangible asset can be clearly distinguished from goodwill if the asset is separable. An asset is separable if the enterprise could rent, sell, exchange or distribute the specific future economic benefits attributable to the asset without also disposing of future economic benefits that flow from other assets used in the same revenue earning activity.

Separability is not a necessary condition for identifiability since an enterprise may be able to identify an asset in some other way. For example, if an intangible asset is acquired with a group of assets, the transaction may involve the transfer of legal rights that enable an enterprise to identify the intangible asset. Similarly, if an internal project aims to create legal rights for the enterprise, the nature of these rights may assist the enterprise in identifying an underlying internally generated intangible asset. Also, even if an asset generates future economic benefits only in combination with other assets, the asset is identifiable if the enterprise can identify the future economic benefits that will flow from the asset.

An enterprise controls an asset if the enterprise has the power to obtain the future economic benefits flowing from the underlying resource and also can restrict the access of others to those benefits. The capacity of an enterprise to control the future economic benefits from an intangible asset would normally stem from legal rights that are enforceable in a court of law. In the absence of legal rights, it is more difficult to demonstrate control. However, legal enforceability of a right is not a necessary condition for control since an enterprise may be able to control the future economic benefits in some other way.

Market and technical knowledge may give rise to future economic benefits. An enterprise controls those benefits if, for example, the knowledge is protected by legal rights such as copyrights, a restraint of trade agreement (where permitted) or by a legal duty on employees to maintain confidentiality.

An enterprise may have a team of skilled staff and may be able to identify incremental staff skills leading to future economic benefits from training. The enterprise may also expect that the staff will continue to make their skills available to the enterprise. However, usually an enterprise has insufficient control over the expected future economic benefits arising from a team of skilled staff and from training to consider that these items meet the definition of an intangible asset. For a similar reason, specific management or technical talent is unlikely to meet the definition of an intangible asset, unless it is protected by legal rights to use it and to obtain the future economic benefits expected from it, and it also meets the other parts of the definition.

An enterprise may have a portfolio of customers or a market share and expect that, due to its efforts in building customer relationships and loyalty, the customers will continue to trade with the enterprise. However, in the absence of legal rights to protect, or other ways to control, the relationships with customers or the loyalty of the customers to the enterprise, the enterprise usually has insufficient control over the economic benefits from customer relationships and loyalty to consider that such items (portfolio of customers, market shares, customer relationships, customer loyalty) meet the definition of intangible assets.

The future economic benefits flowing from an intangible asset may include revenue from the sale of products or services, cost savings, or other benefits resulting from the use of the asset by the enterprise. For example, the use of intellectual property in a production process may reduce future production costs rather than increase future revenues.

The recognition of an item as an intangible asset requires an enterprise to demonstrate that the item meets the:

1. definition of an intangible asset (see paragraphs 6-18); and
   
   
2. recognition criteria set out in this Statement (see paragraphs 20-54).

An enterprise should assess the probability of future economic benefits using reasonable and supportable assumptions that represent best estimate of the set of economic conditions that will exist over the useful life of the asset.

An enterprise uses judgement to assess the degree of certainty attached to the flow of future economic benefits that are attributable to the use of the asset on the basis of the evidence available at the time of initial recognition, giving greater weight to external evidence.

If an intangible asset is acquired separately, the cost of the intangible asset can usually be measured reliably. This is particularly so when the purchase consideration is in the form of cash or other monetary assets.

The cost of an intangible asset comprises its purchase price, including any import duties and other taxes (other than those subsequently recoverable by the enterprise from the taxing authorities), and any directly attributable expenditure on making the asset ready for its intended use. Directly attributable expenditure includes, for example, professional fees for legal services. Any trade discounts and rebates are deducted in arriving at the cost.

If an intangible asset is acquired in exchange for shares or other securities of the reporting enterprise, the asset is recorded at its fair value, or the fair value of the securities issued, whichever is more clearly evident.

An intangible asset acquired in an amalgamation in the nature of purchase is accounted for in accordance with Accounting Standard (AS) 14, Accounting for Amalgamations. Where in preparing the financial statements of the transferee company, the consideration is allocated to individual identifiable assets and liabilities on the basis of their fair values at the date of amalgamation, paragraphs 28 to 32 of this Statement need to be considered.

Judgement is required to determine whether the cost (i.e. fair value) of an intangible asset acquired in an amalgamation can be measured with sufficient reliability for the purpose of separate recognition. Quoted market prices in an active market provide the most reliable measurement of fair value. The appropriate market price is usually the current bid price. If current bid prices are unavailable, the price of the most recent similar transaction may provide a basis from which to estimate fair value, provided that there has not been a significant change in economic circumstances between the transaction date and the date at which the asset's fair value is estimated.

If no active market exists for an asset, its cost reflects the amount that the enterprise would have paid, at the date of the acquisition, for the asset in an arm's length transaction between knowledgeable and willing parties, based on the best information available. In determining this amount, an enterprise considers the outcome of recent transactions for similar assets.

Certain enterprises that are regularly involved in the purchase and sale of unique intangible assets have developed techniques for estimating their fair values indirectly. These techniques may be used for initial measurement of an intangible asset acquired in an amalgamation in the nature of purchase if their objective is to estimate fair value as defined in this Statement and if they reflect current transactions and practices in the industry to which the asset belongs. These techniques include, where appropriate, applying multiples reflecting current market transactions to certain indicators driving the profitability of the asset (such as revenue, market shares, operating profit, etc.) or discounting estimated future net cash flows from the asset.

Unless there is an active market for an intangible asset acquired in an amalgamation in the nature of purchase, the cost initially recognised for the intangible asset is restricted to an amount that does not create or increase any capital reserve arising at the date of the amalgamation.

In some cases, an intangible asset may be acquired free of charge, or for nominal consideration, by way of a government grant. This may occur when a government transfers or allocates to an enterprise intangible assets such as airport landing rights, licences to operate radio or television stations, import licences or quotas or rights to access other restricted resources. AS 12, Accounting for Government Grants, requires that government grants in the form of non-monetary assets, given at a concessional rate should be accounted for on the basis of their acquisition cost. AS 12 also requires that in case a non-monetary asset is given free of cost, it should be recorded at a nominal value. Accordingly, intangible asset acquired free of charge, or for nominal consideration, by way of government grant is recognised at a nominal value or at the acquisition cost, as appropriate; any expenditure that is directly attributable to making the asset ready for its intended use is also included in the cost of the asset.

An intangible asset may be acquired in exchange or part exchange for another asset. In such a case, the cost of the asset acquired is determined in accordance with the principles laid down in this regard in AS 10, Accounting for Fixed Assets.

In some cases, expenditure is incurred to generate future economic benefits, but it does not result in the creation of an intangible asset that meets the recognition criteria in this Statement. Such expenditure is often described as contributing to internally generated goodwill. Internally generated goodwill is not recognised as an asset because it is not an identifiable resource controlled by the enterprise that can be measured reliably at cost.

Differences between the market value of an enterprise and the carrying amount of its identifiable net assets at any point in time may be due to a range of factors that affect the value of the enterprise. However, such differences cannot be considered to represent the cost of intangible assets controlled by the enterprise.

It is sometimes difficult to assess whether an internally generated intangible asset qualifies for recognition. It is often difficult to:

1. identify whether, and the point of time when, there is an identifiable asset that will generate probable future economic benefits; and
   
   

2. determine the cost of the asset reliably. In some cases, the cost of generating an intangible asset internally cannot be distinguished from the cost of maintaining or enhancing the enterprise's internally generated goodwill or of running day-to-day operations.

Therefore, in addition to complying with the general requirements for the recognition and initial measurement of an intangible asset, an enterprise applies the requirements and guidance in paragraphs 39-54 below to all internally generated intangible assets.

To assess whether an internally generated intangible asset meets the criteria for recognition, an enterprise classifies the generation of the asset into:

1. a research phase; and
   
   
2. a development phase.

Although the terms 'research' and 'development' are defined, the terms 'research phase' and 'development phase' have a broader meaning for the purpose of this Statement.

If an enterprise cannot distinguish the research phase from the development phase of an internal project to create an intangible asset, the enterprise treats the expenditure on that project as if it were incurred in the research phase only.

This Statement takes the view that, in the research phase of a project, an enterprise cannot demonstrate that an intangible asset exists from which future economic benefits are probable. Therefore, this expenditure is recognised as an expense when it is incurred.

An intangible asset arising from development (or from the development phase of an internal project) should be recognised if, and only if, an enterprise can demonstrate all of the following:

1. the technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset so that it will be available for use or sale;
   
   

2. its intention to complete the intangible asset and use or sell it;
   
   

3. its ability to use or sell the intangible asset;
   
   

4. how the intangible asset will generate probable future economic benefits. Among other things, the enterprise should demonstrate the existence of a market for the output of the intangible asset or the intangible asset itself or, if it is to be used internally, the usefulness of the intangible asset;
   
   

5. the availability of adequate technical, financial and other resources to complete the development and to use or sell the intangible asset; and
   
   

6. its ability to measure the expenditure attributable to the intangible asset during its development reliably.

In the development phase of a project, an enterprise can, in some instances, identify an intangible asset and demonstrate that future economic benefits from the asset are probable. This is because the development phase of a project is further advanced than the research phase.

To demonstrate how an intangible asset will generate probable future economic benefits, an enterprise assesses the future economic benefits to be received from the asset using the principles in Accounting Standard on Impairment of Assets5. If the asset will generate economic benefits only in combination with other assets, the enterprise applies the concept of cash-generating units as set out in Accounting Standard on Impairment of Assets.

Availability of resources to complete, use and obtain the benefits from an intangible asset can be demonstrated by, for example, a business plan showing the technical, financial and other resources needed and the enterprise's ability to secure those resources. In certain cases, an enterprise demonstrates the availability of external finance by obtaining a lender's indication of its willingness to fund the plan.

An enterprise's costing systems can often measure reliably the cost of generating an intangible asset internally, such as salary and other expenditure incurred in securing copyrights or licences or developing computer software.

Internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance should not be recognised as intangible assets.

This Statement takes the view that expenditure on internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance cannot be distinguished from the cost of developing the business as a whole. Therefore, such items are not recognised as intangible assets.